Installing RAM in your Laptop

This guide was developed to instruct readers on the proper procedures for installing memory modules into a laptop computer. It includes step-by-step instructions for the physical installation of a memory module into those laptop systems that have an access panel to the memory modules. Not all laptops have this type of access. If yours does not, then it will probably require installation from an authorized technician.

For additional information about installing computer memory into your computer system, it is recommended that you read any user manuals that came with your computer for specific procedures that may be required. For more information for purchasing memory upgrades for a computer, please refer to the Before You Buy Memory upgrades article.

1. Turn off the computer and remove all power cords from the computer system.

2. Locate the panel used for access to the memory modules. This is generally located on the bottom of the laptop computer. Refer to your laptop instruction manuals for locating the panel.

3. Remove any screws that the panel in place and place somewhere safe to prevent losing it.

4. Remove the panel from the laptop and set aside.

5. If replacing or upgrading an existing memory module, remove the memory modules by undoing and module clamps and gently lifting the edge of the module to a 45-degree angle and then pulling the module out of the slot.


6. Align the notch of the memory module with that of the memory slot and gently insert the module into the slot at a 45-degree angle.

7. Once all the pins are in the slot, gently rotate the module down flat until the clamps lock into the module into place.

8. Replace the memory access panel onto the laptop computer.

9. Replace any screws or fasteners that hold the panel in place.


10. Replace the power cord and power up your computer system.

Once the memory has been installed into the computer, the physical process is complete. When the computer is powered back up, it may be necessary to go into the computer BIOS to let the system properly detect the new RAM that has been installed in the computer. Please refer to the user manual for the computer system for any additional information.

Speed up your modem

Right Click My Computer
Select Properties
Select Device manager
Select Ports (if you cant find any modem port, then directly go to modem) Go to your modem port
Click on bits per second and change it to maximum
Click Flow control and change it to none
In ports --> Go to Advanced --> make sure Use FIFO buffers is checked --> and receive and transmit buffers should be on max.

Thats it, your modem speed is increased and now surf the internet with new speed :).

How to Buy a Computer in 2008

If you want to know how buy a computer this year, you make up a small percentage of people that will actually do their homework to prevent making a big mistake! Many will purchase a computer that will not stand up to their needs - it will either be inadequate or be way more than they needed. (And in the latter case, they will also spend hundreds more than they wanted to!) Avoid pain and regret and learn how to buy a computer perfect for your needs today!

Step1
Learn your definitions! Take some time to get to know the basics of computer “lingo” so you cannot be tricked into buying more computer than you need. The salesman in the store likely profits from upgrading you and before you know it, you’re walking out the door with a computer suited for a professional animator when all you needed was to do the basic computer functions like e-mail and simple web surfing! Don’t let this happen to you.

Step2
Know your type! This is so important. There are 4 different types of computer users: Home, Home Office, Media, and Media Creator. You may fall into one or two categories which might make you an exception, but the idea is that knowing your target needs will keep your budget in tact and give you the information needed to tweak your decision when the “pressure” is on at the store.

Step3
Set your budget. If you walk into the store without knowing your budget, you’re just asking to spend more than you need to. The salesman will give you many reasons to overpay. It goes something like this: “This is the last one on the floor”, “This model is selling fast, I don’t know if it will be here tomorrow if you wait”, “I can give you this model for $100 less if you buy now”, “You won’t find this deal again”, and it goes on and on. After you set your budget and know the “ballpark” range you expect to pay, you won’t feel like you are in such a rush to buy.

Step4
Know your choices and their price range. This step is kind of integrated into the last one but it bears mentioning on its own. There are different types of computers since there are different types of users. Now that you know your user type, you can zone in on your computer type and its price range. You may discover that a Mac is better than a PC for your needs. That can give you valuable information to target certain stores. Not all stores sell Mac computers so this information will save you time before you start shopping. If you surf a few minutes on line, you will easily see what the price range will be for the computer needs you have.

Step5
Shop around. Treat your computer buying experience like shopping for a car. This time of year (and beyond), the newer computers are pushing out last year’s models but since you now know your needs (after figuring out #2), you can benefit from the “blow out” sales you will see as you shop. Take your time.

Step6
Don't forget peripherals! Many people go out, buy a computer and then come home finding out they needed to consider things like a printer, router, new software because the old software doesn’t run on the new machine, and other incompatibility issues. It is important to think through the extended needs that might come about when buying a new computer.

Step7
Stick to your checklist. Bring a copy of your needs (like a cheat sheet) on the shopping trips with you. If you have a list of the specs you are interested in, you can easily see which computers meet your needs while you are in the store and eliminate the ones that don’t. This will keep you from getting confused. A side benefit to this is to show the salesman that you know what you are looking for and it will discourage them from talking you into buying more computer than you need!

I hope this list has helped you learn how to buy a computer in 2008 and you have become more informed on what necessary tools are needed to make your next computer buying experience a painless and profitable one! Good luck!

Guide to maintain your computer speed

1. Don't turn your computer off with the power switch until Windows has shut down.

The one exception to this rule is when your computer locks up and your hard drive is not running (hard drive light is not blinking). In this situation, you can turn the power off without harmful effects to the hard drive. As cutting the power can also result in lost data or Windows files, you should only do this when you have to.

Following this rule will prevent permanent hard drive defects caused by the hard drive heads contacting the surface of the drive disc, and it will prevent a host of Windows problems.
Whenever possible, recover from crashes by pressing the Ctrl + Alt + Delete keys at the same time. Press them again to reboot your computer.

2. I highly recommend that you purchase an UPS (uninteruptable power supply) for your computer. This will keep your computer from crashing during power outages, and will protect your computer from low and high voltage occurrences.
An UPS is far superior to a surge protector and will save your computer from almost any power type of disaster. (See #1 above for what happens when your computer crashes.)

3. Backup, backup, backup, any data you cannot afford to lose to at least two separate physical drives. So backup data to floppies, Zip disks, CD-RWs etc.
The time to backup is when you create something you can't afford to lose. Don't wait until tomorrow.

4. Run Scandisk and Defragment at least once a month. This will keep your hard drive healthy and prevent crashes. Alternatively, purchase Norton Utilities and use it to keep your hard drive healthy.

5. Do keep at least 500 MBs of your C: drive free for Windows to use.

If you do not have enough free space you will choke Windows and it will start dumping data to your hard drive, or it will just get really, really, slow.

You can also use Cleansweep included in Norton Utilities to clean up your drive. If you do use Cleansweep or another hard drive cleaner, do not delete shared files unless you back them up. The cleaners do a rotten job of knowing if another program uses shared files.

6. Do not let a lot of programs load up when you start your computer. They use valuable memory and Windows Resources (Windows internal workspace).

All programs in your Windows System Tray (in the lower left of your screen) are running on your computer. Close them if you don't need them or run them and configure them not to load when you boot up.

Other programs running in the background can be found by pressing Ctrl + Alt + Delete at the same time.

7. Do use a virus checker regularly. Everyone should use a virus checker. The best type of protection is continuous monitoring from a dedicated anti-virus program like Norton Antivirus.

The second best thing is to use is the free online virus checker Housecall provided by Trend Micro.

8. If you have a high speed Internet connection you need a firewall program. A firewall program keeps those who want to hijack your computer from gaining access to your system. You really do not want someone else running your computer.

I suggest you purchase and run Norton's Personal Firewall program. Your firewall should boot up with your computer to protect it from invasion. A free personal firewall program is available from Tiny Software.

Guide for Fixing Computer Game Problems

New Game Blues

If you have bought a new game recently, and popped it in to your computer expecting gaming bliss, only to find that it crashes or locks up your whole system, then this article is for you.

Step One - Get Some Help

Maybe the game manufacturer has already updated the game and you no longer have a problem. So, the first thing you should do is visit the game manufacturer's web site and determine if there is a "game patch" to download. Also, visit the manufacturer's support area and see if there is a FAQ (frequently asked questions) or other tips that might help you.

Another good resource is game "fan" sites. For almost all recent games, third parties have developed web sites with a host of information on the new game. These sites can be found through the game manufacturer's site links or by searching on the name of the game. Many of these sites have bulletin or discussion boards, and most will have an area dedicated to game problems. Don't be shy about posting your problem if no one else has posted it.

Step Two - Identifying the Problem

So how does one go about coaxing a new game to run?
Do you promise to make amends for past deeds if only the game will work?
Maybe you could wiggle some cables or something?
Or should you just give up and run down to the computer store and buy a new computer, motherboard, or video card?

The first thing you should know is, "If your computer worked fine before loading the new game, then the game is the cause of the problem, not the computer".
Provided that your computer meets the manufacturer's minimum specifications (available on the game box) for running the game, you should not have to buy any new hardware.

So instead of pulling your hair out, apply the steps below in the order listed. After each step, you should try to run your game to see if the problem is corrected.

Warning - While you may choose to perform all steps, you should be aware that the steps progressively become riskier and could cause your computer to become unstable or unbootable if not performed correctly.

Step Three - Update and Test DirectX Drivers

Microsoft's DirectX is required to run most new and old games. It can be obtained free from Microsoft's Windows Update Page. The majority of games will include a version of DirectX on the game's CD-ROM. If the new game is well behaved it will ask if you want to load its version of DirectX.

[Warning - If you have a newer version of DirectX already on your system - don't load an older version. This could corrupt current, or install older, drivers. Most games will usually work fine with a newer version of DirectX than the game requires.]

OK. Good Advice. So how do you know what version of DirectX you have? Use your file manager to open the DirectX directory and click on a program called DXDIAG.EXE. Use search if you dunt know where the file is.

This will open the DirectX Diagnostic Tool which not only reports the version of DirectX you have loaded (on the bottom of the first tab), it also lets you test your video and audio systems for conflicts. You should definitely click on all of the tabs and perform all the tests to make sure there are no problems.

Step Four - Obtain the Latest Video and Sound Drivers

You have a required, or newer version, of DirectX and the DirectX Diagnostic Tool doesn't report any problems, but you game is still crashing. Now what?

The next step is to obtain the latest video and sound drivers. While DirectX/Windows does have some drivers included, you should visit your audio and video card manufacturers' web sites to look for updated drivers. These are usually available in the technical support section of the site and can be downloaded free.

Another possibility for video drivers is to visit the graphic chip manufacturer's site (which you should only do if your graphic card manufacture is doing a poor job of releasing new drivers), e.g. if you have a NVidia GeForce card you could visit NVidia's web site.

Step Five - Adjust BIOS Settings

You loaded the latest video and sound drivers and the game still doesn't work - time to check those BIOS settings.
On most desktops, the BIOS settings screen is activated by pressing the Delete key during the startup boot check of system RAM. Once you are in the BIOS you can try changing the following items, one at a time, to see if they enable your game to work.

Your BIOS probably has various sections and you will have to locate these attributes to change them. No changes will be made in the BIOS unless they are saved before you exit. So if you make BIOS changes, but then decide you really don't want to save them, don't save the changes when you exit.

Warning - The following changes could keep your computer from operating properly. Before changing an item, write down your original setting. Do not change any settings other than those described. Your BIOS may or may not have the following items.

Recommended Settings

1. Enable "Assign IRQ to VGA" .
2. Disable "VGA Palette Snoop".
3. Disable "Video Bios Shadow" and video memory address shadowing like "C800-CBFFF".
4. "AGP Aperture" size should be one-half of available system RAM.
5. Reduce "AGP Speed" to 2/3 (especially good for overclockers).
6. Un-overclock your CPU (of course this is a last resort).

Last Resorts

If nothing else has worked, than the solutions listed below are the last things you should try. You should probably seek help again from your manufacture and other users before you try these ideas.

Warning - These solutions could definitely keep your system from operating properly and should not be undertaken by novices.

1. Move your PCI video card into a different slot. Some PCI video cards will pick up interference from the cards next to them. Trying a different slot might help.
2. Flash your video card's BIOS. New video cards have a flashable BIOS just like a motherboard's. If there is an update to your BIOS it will be available at your video card manufacturer's web site.
3. Flash your motherboard's BIOS. Any BIOS upgrades will be available at your motherboard manufacturer's web site.

Laptop Buying Guide - few things to consider before you decide to buy a laptop

This guide is divided into several different chapters which include: what to consider before purchasing a laptop or notebook computer, recommended laptop features, an explanation of laptop video memory and how it effects screen resolution, a notebook CPU speed index guide, details on the mobile CPUs that are in the speed index, hints on buying a laptop, and a list of other laptop/notebook computer resources.

What to Consider Before Purchasing a Laptop Computer

1. Portability - The main reason to have a laptop or notebook computer is portability - the need to take your entire computer from one place to another. If you don't need portability, then you should probably buy a desktop.

2. Expense - Laptop computers cost almost twice as much as comparably equipped desktops. Shocking isn't it?
You can actually buy two comparably equipped desktops for the price of one laptop. So if you have to have a computer in two separate places, you would be better off with two desktops (if they were reasonably close together you could hook them together in a wired or wireless local area network (LAN).

3. Speed - Laptops are 20-30% slower than a desktop with the same features (CPU, hard drive capacity, etc.). Slower CPUs, motherboards, hard drives, and video systems all contribute to the speed loss.

4. Upgradeability - Laptop computers are mostly non-upgradeable. Whatever CPU, video card (built into the motherboard), sound card (also built-in), and screen, that come with the laptop are the same parts the laptop will end with.
While it is possible to upgrade main memory, and removable drives, the upgrades can cost twice as much as a desktop's. Upgrades using PC cards or docking stations are also very expensive.

You can also upgrade newer laptops through their USB, USB 2.0, and Firewire ports. Only USB 2.0 and Firewire ports can run high speed devices e.g. hard drives and DVD drives. Again, all external drives cost almost twice as much as an internal drive.

5. Serious Gaming. You will need to spend at least $2500 for a laptop that can play current games at a respectable speed. I don't recommend laptops for serious gaming no matter how much you are willing to spend. Why?

Because if you love to play games, about 1-1.5 years after you purchase your laptop you will find it isn't fast enough to keep up with the latest new game. At that time, you will regret buying a gaming laptop. However, if you have the money, and want to throw down $2500 every year or so, more power to you.

On the other hand, if your computer budget is limited, it's better to have a functional laptop and spend your gaming dollars on an upgradeable desktop.

Computer programming

Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding) is the process of writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting, and maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language. The code may be a modification of an existing source or something completely new. The purpose of programming is to create a program that exhibits a certain desired behavior (customization). The process of writing source codes requires expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms and formal logic.

Programming languages

Different programming languages support different styles of programming (called programming paradigms). The choice of language used is subject to many considerations, such as company policy, suitability to task, availability of third-party packages, or individual preference. Ideally, the programming language best suited for the task at hand will be selected. Trade-offs from this ideal involve finding enough programmers who know the language to build a team, the availability of compilers for that language, and the efficiency with which programs written in a given language execute.

Allen Downey, in his book How To Think Like A Computer Scientist, writes:

The details look different in different languages, but a few basic instructions appear in just about every language: input: Get data from the keyboard, a file, or some other device. output: Display data on the screen or send data to a file or other device. math: Perform basic mathematical operations like addition and multiplication. conditional execution: Check for certain conditions and execute the appropriate sequence of statements. repetition: Perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation.

Many computer languages provide a mechanism to call functions provided by libraries. Provided the functions in a library follow the appropriate runtime conventions (eg, method of passing arguments), then these functions may be written in any other language.

History of programming Wired plug board for an IBM 402 Accounting Machine.The earliest programmable machine (that is a machine whose behavior can be controlled by changes to a "program") was Al-Jazari's programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.

The Jacquard Loom, developed in 1801, is often quoted as a source of prior art. The machine used a series of pasteboard cards with holes punched in them. The hole pattern represented the pattern that the loom had to follow in weaving cloth. The loom could produce entirely different weaves using different sets of cards. The use of punched cards was also adopted by Charles Babbage around 1830, to control his Analytical Engine.

This innovation was later refined by Herman Hollerith who, in 1896 founded the Tabulating Machine Company (which became IBM). He invented the Hollerith punched card, the card reader, and the key punch machine. These inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. The addition of a plug-board to his 1906 Type I Tabulator allowed it to do different jobs without having to be rebuilt (the first step toward programming). By the late 1940s there were a variety of plug-board programmable machines, called unit record equipment, to perform data processing tasks (card reading). The early computers were also programmed using plug-boards.

A box of punch cards with several program decks.The invention of the Von Neumann architecture allowed computer programs to be stored in computer memory. Early programs had to be painstakingly crafted using the instructions of the particular machine, often in binary notation. Every model of computer would be likely to need different instructions to do the same task. Later assembly languages were developed that let the programmer specify each instruction in a text format, entering abbreviations for each operation code instead of a number and specifying addresses in symbolic form (e.g. ADD X, TOTAL). In 1954 Fortran, the first higher level programming language, was invented. This allowed programmers to specify calculations by entering a formula directly (e.g. Y = X*2 + 5*X + 9). The program text, or source, was converted into machine instructions using a special program called a compiler. Many other languages were developed, including ones for commercial programming, such as COBOL. Programs were mostly still entered using punch cards or paper tape. (See computer programming in the punch card era). By the late 1960s, data storage devices and computer terminals became inexpensive enough so programs could be created by typing directly into the computers. Text editors were developed that allowed changes and corrections to be made much more easily than with punch cards.

As time has progressed, computers have made giant leaps in the area of processing power. This has brought about newer programming languages that are more abstracted from the underlying hardware. Although these more abstracted languages require additional overhead, in most cases the huge increase in speed of modern computers has brought about little performance decrease compared to earlier counterparts. The benefits of these more abstracted languages is that they allow both an easier learning curve for people less familiar with the older lower-level programming languages, and they also allow a more experienced programmer to develop simple applications quickly. Despite these benefits, large complicated programs, and programs that are more dependent on speed still require the faster and relatively lower-level languages with today's hardware. (The same concerns were raised about the original Fortran language.)
Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, programming was an attractive career in most developed countries. Some forms of programming have been increasingly subject to offshore outsourcing (importing software and services from other countries, usually at a lower wage), making programming career decisions in developed countries more complicated, while increasing economic opportunities in less developed areas. It is unclear how far this trend will continue and how deeply it will impact programmer wages and opportunities.

Modern programming

Quality requirements

Whatever the approach to the software development may be, the program must finally satisfy some fundamental properties; bearing them in mind while programming reduces the costs in terms of time and/or money due to debugging, further development and user support. Although quality programming can be achieved in a number of ways, following five properties are among the most relevant:

• Efficiency: it is referred to the system resource consumption (computer processor, memory, slow devices, networks and to some extent even user interaction) which must be the lowest possible.
• Reliability: the results of the program must be correct, which not only implies a correct code implementation but also reduction of error propagation (e.g. resulting from data conversion) and prevention of typical errors (overflow, underflow or zero division).
• Robustness: a program must anticipate situations of data type conflict and all other incompatibilities which result in run time errors and stop the program. The focus of this aspect is the interaction with the user and the handling of error messages. Portability: it should work as it is in any software and hardware environment, or at least without relevant reprogramming. Readability: the purpose of the main program and of each subroutine must be clearly defined with appropriate comments and self explanatory choice of symbolic names (constants, variables, function names, classes, methods, ...).

Algorithmic complexity

The academic field and the engineering practice of computer programming are both largely concerned with discovering and implementing the most efficient algorithms for a given class of problem. For this purpose, algorithms are classified into orders using so-called Big O notation, O(n), which expresses resource use, such as execution time or memory consumption, in terms of the size of an input. Expert programmers are familiar with a variety of well-established algorithms and their respective complexities and use this knowledge to choose algorithms that are best suited to the circumstances.

Methodologies

The first step in most formal software development projects is requirements analysis, followed by modeling, implementation, and failure elimination (debugging). There exist a lot of differing approaches for each of those tasks. One approach popular for requirements analysis is Use Case analysis.

Popular modeling techniques include Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) and Model-Driven Architecture (MDA). The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a notation used for both OOAD and MDA.

A similar technique used for database design is Entity-Relationship Modeling (ER Modeling).
Implementation techniques include imperative languages (object-oriented or procedural), functional languages, and logic languages.

Debugging is most often done with IDEs like Visual Studio, NetBeans, and Eclipse. Separate debuggers like gdb are also used.

Measuring language usage

It is very difficult to determine what are the most popular of modern programming languages. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications (e.g., COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes, FORTRAN in engineering applications, and C in embedded applications), while some languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

Methods of measuring language popularity include: counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language[4], the number of books teaching the language that are sold (this overestimates the importance of newer languages), and estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language (this underestimates the number of users of business languages such as COBOL).

Debugging

Debugging is a very important task in the software development process, because an erroneous program can have significant consequences for its users. Some languages are more prone to some kinds of faults because their specification does not require compilers to perform as much checking as other languages. Use of a static analysis tool can help detect some possible problems.

References

• Paul Graham (2003). "Hackers and Painters". Retrieved on 2006-08-22.
• Kenneth E. Iverson, the originator of the APL programming language, believed that the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis applied to computer languages (without actually mentioning the hypothesis by name). His Turing award lecture, "Notation as a tool of thought", was devoted to this theme, arguing that more powerful notations aided thinking about computer algorithms. Iverson K.E.,"Notation as a tool of thought", Communications of the ACM, 23: 444-465 (August 1980).
• A 13th Century Programmable Robot (University of Sheffield). Survey of Job advertisements mentioning a given language

taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/

Computer Software

Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.[1] The term includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.

Relationship to computer hardware

Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into RAM and executed in the central processing unit. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions which change the state of the computer from its preceding state.

Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code.

Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.

The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958.
In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all computer programs. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem.

Types

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.

System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowing systems, utilities and more. The purpose of systems software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the details of the particular computer complex being used, especially memory and other hardware features, and such as accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc.

Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include text editors, compilers, interpreters, linkers, debuggers, and so on. An Integrated development environment (IDE) merges those tools into a software bundle, and a programmer may not need to type multiple commands for compiling, interpreting, debugging, tracing, and etc., because the IDE usually has an advanced graphical user interface, or GUI.

Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-computer related) tasks. Typical applications include industrial automation, business software, educational software, medical software, databases, and computer games. Businesses are probably the biggest users of application software, but almost every field of human activity now uses some form of application software

Program and library

A program may not be sufficiently complete for execution by a computer. In particular, it may require additional software from a software library in order to be complete. Such a library may include software components used by stand-alone programs, but which cannot work on their own. Thus, programs may include standard routines that are common to many programs, extracted from these libraries. Libraries may also include 'stand-alone' programs which are activated by some computer event and/or perform some function (e.g., of computer 'housekeeping') but do not return data to their calling program. Libraries may be called by one to many other programs; programs may call zero to many other programs.

Three layers

Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers, supercomputers, etc.) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software.

Platform software

Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system, and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer. On a PC you will usually have the ability to change the platform software.

Application software

Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system software" as applications.

User-written software

User software tailors systems to meet the users specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, and scripts for graphics and animations. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into purchased application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the purchased packages, and what has been added by fellow co-workers.

Creation

Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as a hard drive, memory, or RAM). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation -- moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions.

Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data instead. Computations include simple operations such as incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complex computations may involve many operations and data elements together.

Instructions may be performed sequentially, conditionally, or iteratively. Sequential instructions are those operations that are performed one after another. Conditional instructions are performed such that different sets of instructions execute depending on the value(s) of some data. In some languages this is known as an "if" statement. Iterative instructions are performed repetitively and may depend on some data value. This is sometimes called a "loop." Often, one instruction may "call" another set of instructions that are defined in some other program or module. When more than one computer processor is used, instructions may be executed simultaneously.

A simple example of the way software operates is what happens when a user selects an entry such as "Copy" from a menu. In this case, a conditional instruction is executed to copy text from data in a 'document' area residing in memory, perhaps to an intermediate storage area known as a 'clipboard' data area. If a different menu entry such as "Paste" is chosen, the software may execute the instructions to copy the text from the clipboard data area to a specific location in the same or another document in memory.

Depending on the application, even the example above could become complicated. The field of software engineering endeavors to manage the complexity of how software operates. This is especially true for software that operates in the context of a large or powerful computer system.

Currently, almost the only limitations on the use of computer software in applications is the ingenuity of the designer/programmer. Consequently, large areas of activities (such as playing grand master level chess) formerly assumed to be incapable of software simulation are now routinely programmed. The only area that has so far proved reasonably secure from software simulation is the realm of human art— especially, pleasing music and literature.[citation needed]
Kinds of software by operation: computer program as executable, source code or script, configuration.

Quality and reliability

Software reliability considers the errors, faults, and failures related to the creation and operation of software.

LicenseSoftware

license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment, some software comes with the license when purchased off the shelf, or an OEM license when bundled with hardware. Other software comes with a free software licence, granting the recipient the rights to modify and redistribute the software. Software can also be in the form of freeware or shareware.

Patents

The issue of software patents is controversial. Some believe that they hinder software development, while others argue that software patents provide an important incentive to spur software innovation. See software patent debate.

Ethics and rights for software users

Being a new part of society, the idea of what rights users of software should have is not very developed. Some, such as the free software community, believe that software users should be free to modify and redistribute the software they use. They argue that these rights are necessary so that each individual can control their computer, and so that everyone can cooperate, if they choose, to work together as a community and control the direction that software progresses in. Others believe that software authors should have the power to say what rights the user will get.

taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/

Personal Computer Hardware

OK, let's talk about the basic first, the hardware, this is for you noobs out there (if you think you're not a noob, pass this post, seriously)

Computer hardware is the physical part of a computer (that's it, make it simple guys). There're lots of harware that can be attached to computer nowadays (even part of your boddy!! is that make you a hardware too, dont ask me) so it won't gonna be enough if i write it all so i guess i only write about the part that majorly needed to make the computer on.


Typical PC hardware


A typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape (desktop) and the following parts:

Motherboard

Motherboard - the "body" or mainframe of the computer, through which all other components interface.

Central processing unit (CPU) - Performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer.

Computer fan - Used to lower the temperature of the computer; a fan is almost always attached to the CPU, and the computer case will generally have several fans to maintain a constant airflow. Liquid cooling can also be used to cool a computer, though it focuses more on individual parts rather than the overall temperature inside the chassis.

Random Access Memory (RAM) - Fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is powered-down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used to store programs that are currently running.

Firmware is loaded from the Read only memory ROM run from the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) or in newer systems Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) compliant

Internal Buses - Connections to various internal components.

• PCI
• PCI-E
• USB
• HyperTransport
• CSI (expected in 2008)
• AGP (being phased out)
• VLB (outdated)
• External Bus Controllers - used to connect to external peripherals, such as printers and input devices. These ports may also be based upon expansion cards, attached to the internal buses.
• parallel port (outdated)
  serial port (outdated)
• USB
• firewire
• SCSI (On Servers and older machines)
• PS/2 (For mice and keyboards, being phased out and replaced by USB.)
• ISA (outdated)
• EISA (outdated)
• MCA (outdated)

Power supply

A case that holds a transformer, voltage control, and (usually) a cooling fan, and supplies power to run the rest of the computer, the most common types of power supplies are AT and BabyAT (old) but the standard for PC's actually are ATX and micro ATX. smps( Switch Mode Power Supply )

Storage controllers

Controllers for hard disk, CD-ROM and other drives like internal Zip and Jaz conventionally for a PC are IDE/ATA; the controllers sit directly on the motherboard (on-board) or on expansion cards, such as a Disk array controller. IDE is usually integrated, unlike SCSI which is found in most servers. The floppy drive interface is a legacy MFM interface which is now slowly disappearing. All these interfaces are gradually being phased out to be replaced by SATA and SAS.

Video display controller

Produces the output for the visual display unit. This will either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot (PCI, PCI-E, PCI-E 2.0, or AGP), in the form of a Graphics Card.

Removable media devices

• CD - the most common type of removable media, inexpensive but has a short life-span.
• CD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a CD.
• CD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a CD.
• DVD - a popular type of removable media that is the same dimensions as a CD but stores up to 6 times as much information. It is the most common way of transferring digital video.
• DVD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a DVD.
• DVD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a DVD.
• DVD-RAM Drive - a device used for rapid writing and reading of data from a special type of DVD.
• Blu-ray - a high-density optical disc format for the storage of digital information, including high-definition video.
• BD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a Blu-ray disc.
• BD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a Blu-ray disc.
• HD DVD - a high-density optical disc format and successor to the standard DVD. It was a discontinued competitor to the Blu-ray format.
• Floppy disk - an outdated storage device consisting of a thin disk of a flexible magnetic storage medium.
• Zip drive - an outdated medium-capacity removable disk storage system, first introduced by Iomega in 1994.
• USB flash drive - a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB interface, typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable.
• Tape drive - a device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape, usually used for long term storage.

Internal storage

Hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent even when the computer has no power.

• Hard disk - for medium-term storage of data.
• Solid-state drive - a device similar to hard disk, but containing no moving parts.
• Disk array controller - a device to manage several hard disks, to achieve performance or reliability improvement.

Sound card

Enables the computer to output sound to audio devices, as well as accept input from a microphone. Most modern computers have sound cards built-in to the motherboard, though it is common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade.

Networking

Connects the computer to the Internet and/or other computers.

• Modem - for dial-up connections.
• Network card - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers.
• Direct Cable Connection - Use of a null modem, connecting two computers together using their serial ports or a Laplink Cable, connecting two computers together with their parallel ports.

Other peripherals

In addition, hardware devices can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common.

Includes various input and output devices, usually external to the computer system

Input

Text input devices

• Keyboard - a device, to input text and characters by depressing buttons (referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter. The most common English-language key layout is the QWERTY layout.
  Pointing devices
• Mouse - a pointing device that detects two dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface.
• Trackball - a pointing device consisting of an exposed portruding ball housed in a socket that detects rotation about two axes.
• Xbox 360 Controller - A controller used for Xbox 360, Which with the use of the application Switchblade(tm), can be used as an additional pointing device with the left or right thumbstick.
  Gaming devices
• Joystick - a general control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots around one end, to detect angles in two or three dimensions.
• Gamepad - a general game controller held in the hand that relies on the digits (especially thumbs) to provide input.
• Game controller - a specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming purposes.
  Image, Video input devices
• Image scanner - a device that provides input by analyzing images, printed text, handwriting, or an object.
• Webcam - a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet.

Audio input devices

• Microphone - an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into an electrical signals

Output

Image, Video output devices

• Printer - a peripheral device that produces a hard (usually paper) copy of a document.
• Monitor - device that displays a video signal, similar to a television, to provide the user with information and an interface with which to interact.

Audio output devices

• Speakers - a device that converts analog audio signals into the equivalent air vibrations in order to make audible sound.
• Headset - a device similar in functionality to computer speakers used mainly to not disturb others nearby.

fieeeww, that's a hell long post. I think that'll be enough for now. Next time, i'll write about it more. Now i need my coffee...

Good days,

Lukm@n

some part taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/

Prologue

Ah, finally i've decided to make my own blog, now as the first post, i thought i should introduce myself first

my name's Lukman aka Luke aka Akym aka Chemotz (dont ask me why i have so much name, its a long story to write) , 26 Male, Single (now)

I was born in a far east country named Indonesia, well i think it got famous this late years after few incident including terrorists. Dont worry, i'm not one of them....yet (heh?)

Right now i'm working hard to finish my college while doing part time job in an Internet Cafe as a CS. I'm studying Physics in my college btw (....sigh, yeah i know it so damn hard)

I used to play football with my friends in the evening before dark, i'm not a good football player so it's just to exercise my body and burn some fat i guess. Sometime in my spare time, if i have a good mood, i play guitar too

I love to play games very very much (nearly cross the line to be an hardcore gamer, whatever that mean -_-!), i mean i like computer or consoles games so much (too much perhaps). I also play online game such as web base game Travian Online and MMORPG like RF Online and Tantra Online. For travian, i play on server 5 right now, send me IGM if you also play in that server, maybe we can set an alliance or NAP there (hehe). Oh i almost forgot, my travian id is akym ;)

That one hobby of mine have turn me to a computer freak, well i think you can imagine what happen. First, you play it's games, then you got addicted, then you start to cheat the game (geez), then even without realizing it (reaaa~aaaally?) you've learnt lots of thing from biner number to programming languages. As the time goes on, system requirements for the games are getting higher and higher (god damnit) , which made you have to know about hardware and software.

I think that's enough about me, so then how about this blog? what shall i do with it? weeeelll, as the tittle said, i want to dedicate this blog for computer freak out there. So i'm planning to post about anything related to computer and maybe some games to^^

I think this's enough for the first post, thanks for reading it to the end ;)

Regards,
Lukm@n